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= **Cognitive Science I - Theories and Principles** =

//I thought it might be helpful, while gathering information for our theory papers, to have one place where the theories and principles we are talking can be found. This wiki is currently set up so that anyone can read but you have to request to join in order to be able to edit. All students from the class will be given full edit privs once they sign up. You should also, at that point, be able to invite others from class to join us. I encourage you to add information here that you think might be helpful for you and for others. Wiki's work best when everyone contributes.//


 * **__Theory__** ||  || __Details, notes, etc...__ ||

"Cognitive load theory has been designed to provide guidelines intended to assist in the presentation of information in a man ner that encourages learner activities that optimize intellectual performance" (Sweller, van Merriënboer, and Paas, 1998, p. 251). Sweller's theory employs aspects of information processing working memory load on learning during instruction. It makes use of schemas as the unit of analysis for the design of instructional materials. Intrinsic cognitive load - linked to the inherent complexity of the subject matter. Concepts that have greater element interactivity will have higher intrinsic cognitive load. Germane cognitive load - the effort the learner exerts to learn the new material Extraneous cognitive load - refers to effort that the learner exerts that is not directly related to learning. Good instructional design should reduce extraneous cognitive load. ||
 * **Cognitive Load Theory** ||  || An instructional theory based on our knowledge of human cognitive architecture that specifically addresses the limitation of working memory.


 * **Dual-Code Theory** ||  || Visual and verbal information are processed differently and along distinct channels with the human mind creating separate representations for information processed in each channel. Both visual and verbal codes for representing information are used to organize incoming information into knowledge that can be acted upon, stored, and retrieved for subsequent use.

Each channel also has limitations. For example, humans have difficulty simultaneously attending to multiple auditory or visual cues, depending on expertise with the task or prior knowledge with the subject area. For example, a television documentary that shows images of plant and animal life in a rain forest while also simultaneously providing narration that describes the animal life could potentially provide for improved learning using the dual-code theory because the visual and verbal information does not compete with each other.

A multimedia presentation that shows multiple visuals such as an image of a speaker as well as the text that the speaker is reading, such as a series of bullet points, could overwhelm the viewer, depending on the person and the situation, because the viewer must now attend to two images. ||


 * **Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Environments** ||  ||   ||


 * **Integrated [Model] Theory of Text and Picture Comprehension** ||  || A model of how individuals understand text and pictures presented in different sensory modalities, based on the assumption that the human perceptual system includes multiple sensory channels, whereas the cognitive system includes two representational channels: a verbal (descriptive) channel and a pictorial (depictive) channel and that these channels have limited capacity for information processing and active coherence formation. (Schnotz, Ch 4 in Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning) ||


 * **Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning** ||  || A theory of how people learn from words and pictures, based on the idea that people possess separate channels for processing verbal and visual material (dual-channels assumption), each channel can process only a small amount of material at a time (limited-capacity assumption), and meaningful learning involves engaging in appropriate cognitive processing during learning (active -processing assumption). ||


 * **Cognitive-Affective Theory of Learning with Media** ||  || the improved transfer for multimedia groups may rely not only on additive coding but, at least in part, on increased student interest, ||


 * **__Principle__** ||  || __Details, notes, etc....__ ||


 * **Multimedia** ||  || When words and pictures are presented together, students do well on retention and transfer tests and therefore have experienced meaningful learning//. People learn better from words and pictures than from words alone. (Mayer, Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, Chapter 1.) ||


 * **Prior Knowledge** ||  || The design principle stating that most principles for multimedia learning environments depends on the prior knowledge of the learner, i.e., principles that help low knowledge learners may not help or even hinder high-knowledge learners. Instructional design principles that enhance multimedia learning for novices may hinder multimedia learning for more expert learners. ||


 * **Spatial Contiguity** ||  || For novices, presenting explanatory text near images aids in comprehension. For experts, such text creates extraneous cognitive load. (See redundancy principle.) Mayer 12 ||


 * **Temporal Contiguity** ||  ||   ||


 * **Split-Attention** ||  || People learn better from words and pictures physically and temporally integrated. This is similar to Mayer's spatial contiguity and temporal contiguity principles. ||




 * **Modality** ||  || People learn better from graphics and narration than graphics and printed text. This is similar to Mayer's Modality principle. The idea is supported by Mayer's research on dual coding theory. Two channels--the verbal channel for words and the visual channel for images are more effective than a single channel. ||


 * **Redundancy** ||  || People learn better when the same information in not presented in more than one format. This is similar to Mayer's redundancy principle. Redundant information increases extraneous cognitive load. (Sweller 10, Mayer 12) ||

(Does an advanced organizer = pre-training?) ||
 * **Segmenting, Pretraining, and Modality** ||  || People learn better when a multimedia message is presented in learned-paced segments rather than as a continuous unit. People learn better from a multimedia message when they know the names and characteristics of the main concepts, and people learn better from a multimedia message when the words are spoken rather than written.


 * **Coherence, Signaling, Spatial Contiguity, Temporal Contiguity, and Redundancy** ||  || People learn better when extraneous material is excluded rather than included, when cues are added that highlight the organization of the essential material, when corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other on the screen or page or in time, and people learn better from graphics and narration than from graphics, narration, and on-screen text. ||


 * **Personalization, Voice, and Image** ||  || People learn better when the words of a multimedia presentation are in conversational style rather than formal style and when the words are spoken in a standard-accented human voice rather than a machine voice or foreign-accented human voice; but people do not necessarily learn better when the speaker's image in on the screen. Generally, address the learner directly, "you will" as opposed to using the third person "note that the clouds are forming.) ||


 * **Guided-Discovery** ||  || People learn better when guidance is incorporated into discovery-based multimedia environments. ||


 * **Worked-Out Example** ||  || People learn better when they receive worked-out, or partially complete, examples in initial skill learning. Worked examples are an application of cognitive load theory, more specifically, the split attention principle. Visually integrated examples reduce extraneous cognitive load for novices. See [|Wikipedia illustration]. ||


 * **Collaboration** ||  || People learn better with collaborative online learning activities. ||


 * **Self-Explanation** ||  || People learn better when they are encouraged to generate self-explanations during learning. ||


 * **Animation and Interactivity** ||  || People do not necessarily learn better from animation than from static diagrams. ||


 * **Navigation** ||  || People learn better in hypertext environments when appropriate navigation aids are provided. ||


 * **Site Map** ||  || People can learn better in an online environment when the interface includes a map showing where the learner is in the lesson. ||


 * **Cognitive Aging** ||  || Instructional design principles that effectively expand working memory capacity are especially helpful for older learners. ||
 * Expertiese ||  || assumes continuous optimization of cognitive load by presenting required instructional guidance at teh appropriate time and the removal of unnecessary redundant instructional support and activities as learners progress from novies to more advanced levels of proficiency in a domain (Kalyuga in Plass et all (2010) ||


 * __Cognitive Load Theory Effects__ ||  || __Details, Notes, etc...__ ||
 * Modality ||  ||   ||
 * Worked Example ||  ||   ||
 * Redundancy ||  ||   ||
 * Expertise Reversal ||  ||   ||
 * Split-Attention ||  ||   ||